R V. Panel On Takeovers And Mergers Essay - 1410 Words

R v. Panel on Takeovers and Mergers: Can the Regulator be regulated -Manoj Reddy Keshireddy The Court of appeal was considering the question whether the Panel on Takeovers and Mergers which was an unincorporated organisation without legal personality is amenable to judicial review. The Panel on Takeovers was a self-regulating organisation overseeing and regulating takeovers and mergers in corporate sector. The said panel, however, had no statutory, prerogative or common law powers. M/s. Datafin, for takeover of which company two other companies were vying with each other, complained to the Panel that both the companies acted in concert contrary to the terms of the takeover Code. The complaint was rejected by the Panel. The High Court refused to entertain an application for judicial review on the ground that it had no jurisdiction to entertain the application. Before the Court of appeal, the Panel on Takeovers contended that the Courts power of judicial review is confined to bodies whose power is derived solely from the legislation or exercise the prerogative power. The con tention was rejected holding that any body discharging public duties is amenable to judicial review. The Said decision was passed by the bench consisting of Sir John Donaldson M.R, Lloyd and Nicholls L.JJ. In the next parts, we shall try answering the question posed by the title from the excerpts of the Judgments of their Lordships. The Judgment of Sir John Donaldson M.R. Efficiency Argument: At theShow MoreRelatedJudicial Review1615 Words   |  7 Pagesthe powers. The case of O’Reilly v Mackman shows the general rule that when claiming against a public body, judicial review should be used. Lord Diplock described this as an ‘exclusivity principle’. The use of this principle has been criticised by academics due to the strictness of it, and has been referred to as a ‘serious setback in administrative law’ . The courts have since tried to use a broader approach in relation to the use of judicial review. In Roy v Kensington and Chelsea and WestminsterRead MoreMerger and Acquisition: Current Issues115629 Words   |  463 PagesMergers and Acquisitions Current Issues Edited by Greg N. Gregoriou and Karyn L. Neuhauser MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS Also edited by Greg N. Gregoriou ADVANCES IN RISK MANAGEMENT ASSET ALLOCATION AND INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENTS DIVERSIFICATION AND PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT OF MUTUAL FUNDS PERFORMANCE OF MUTUAL FUNDS Mergers and Acquisitions Current Issues Edited by GREG N. GREGORIOU and KARYN L. NEUHAUSER Selection and editorial matter  © Greg N. Gregoriou and Karyn L. NeuhauserRead MoreDo Mergers and Acquisitions Create Shareholder Value7268 Words   |  30 PagesDo Mergers and Acquisitions Create Shareholder Wealth In The Pharmaceutical Industry? Mahmud Hassan, Dilip K. Patro, Howard Tuckman and Xiaoli Wang* Purpose: This paper analyzes mergers and acquisitions (MA) focusing on the U.S. pharmaceutical industry in the period 1981-2004. This industry is chosen because it is global, engages intensively in MA which it uses to both complement and substitute for early stage research, and because the potential abnormal returns to blockbuster drugs areRead MoreA Financial Perspective on Mergers and Acquisitions and the Economy19349 Words   |  78 PagesCash Flow Theory of Takeovers: A Financial Perspective on Mergers and Acquisitions and the Economy Michael C. Jensen Harvard Business School MJensen@hbs.edu  © Michael C. Jensen, 1987 â€Å"The Merger Boom†, Proceedings of a Conference sponsored by Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, Oct. 1987, pp.102-143 This document is available on the Social Science Research Network (SSRN) Electronic Library at: http://papers.ssrn.com/ABSTRACT=350422 The Free Cash Flow Theory of Takeovers: A Financial PerspectiveRead MoreExxon Mobile Merger13851 Words   |  56 PagesForthcoming Journal of Applied Finance, Financial Management Association The Exxon-Mobil Merger: An Archetype J. Fred Weston* The Anderson School at UCLA University of California, Los Angeles jweston@anderson.ucla.edu February 26, 2002 Fred Weston is Professor of Finance Emeritus Recalled, the Anderson School at the University of California Los Angeles. Thanks to Matthias Kahl, Samuel C. Weaver, Juan Siu, Brian Johnson, and Kelley Coleman for contributions. The paper also benefited fromRead MoreMAC3702 TL202 S2 20141669 Words   |  7 Pagesdividend growth rate is lower than the discount rate 3 MAC3702/202/2 QUESTION 2 (a) Calculations of NPVI of the different projects: Project Investment NPV Calculation NPVI Project A R 30 000 4 500 (30 000 + 4 500)/30 000 1,15 Project B R 25 000 9 800 (25 000 + 9 800)/25 000 1,39 Project C R 50 000 2 600 (50 000 + 2 600)/50 000 1,05 Conclusion ue to the fact that the projects are indivisible we select the highest N V’s and we don’t evaluate according to NPVI. Indivisible projectsRead MoreTesting the Inefficient Management Hypothesis: Are United Kingdom Mergers and Acquisitions Disciplinary?30116 Words   |  121 PagesAuzius Kazombo Mwale Department of Accounting Finance Testing the inefficient management hypothesis: Are United Kingdom mergers and acquisitions disciplinary? This thesis is provided in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Stirling May 2007 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank various people to whom I am indebted for assisting me in producing this thesis. I am greatly indebted to Professor Robin Limmack for assisting me with the groundworkRead MoreEarnings Management and Corporate Governance in Bangladesh (the Role of the Board and the Audit Committee)9321 Words   |  38 Pagesmost of the companies manage their earnings for different purposes. In particular, this paper examines the roles board, audit committee, board size, and number of board meeting to reduce earnings management practices in Bangladesh. The Blue Ribbon Panel recommends, among other things, that board members serving on audit committees should be financially sophisticated to help detect earnings management. Earnings management is a strategy used by the management of a company to deliberately manipulateRead MoreEarnings Management and Corporate Governance in Bangladesh (the Role of the Board and the Audit Committee)9328 Words   |  38 Pagesmost of the companies ma nage their earnings for different purposes. In particular, this paper examines the roles board, audit committee, board size, and number of board meeting to reduce earnings management practices in Bangladesh. The Blue Ribbon Panel recommends, among other things, that board members serving on audit committees should be financially sophisticated to help detect earnings management. Earnings management is a strategy used by the management of a company to deliberately manipulateRead MoreMergers and Acquisitions in Ghana20927 Words   |  84 PagesOF CAPE COAST THE IMPACT OF MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS ON THE CORPORATE FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF GUINNESS GHANA BREWERIES LIMITED BY STEPHEN SANYE BATOGBEE SEIDU A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE OF THE SCHOOL OF BUSINESS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AUGUST 2008    UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST THE IMPACT OF MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS ON THE CORPORATE

Criminal Involvement Of The United States - 932 Words

Robert D. Crutchfield when speaking of the social class differences to explain criminal involvement in the United States in his published work â€Å"From Slavery to Social Class to Disadvantage: An Intellectual History of the Use of Class to Explain Racial Differences in Criminal Involvement† asks an important question, why do we always connect crimes with race? Crutchfield states â€Å"When race is not the focus, differences in ethnicity, religion, immigration status, or some other marker of being â€Å"the other† are part of how we think about and talk about crime† (2). Crutchfield proposes that we continually seek â€Å"out† groups to ostracize and blame crime on. Out groups when blamed for crime, it is attributed to interiority or social class. We often attribute crimes (those of property and violence) to those of different races. But if the question was reworded and was understood to include collar crimes, white people would have a huge crime rate. Cr utchfield stumbles on several correlations while in this inquiry: that African Americans are more involved in kinds of crime that lead to prison sentences (compared to whites), and that people in lower social classes serve time for these offenses. As African Americans, are very abundant and overrepresented in the areas of low socioeconomic class, the fallacy usually arises that the correlation between the poor African Americans and crime is prevalent. These two sets of data however, do not create a connection. Crutchfield analyzes the effectsShow MoreRelatedShould The Death Penalty Be Justified?989 Words   |  4 PagesShould the Death Penalty be a widely accepted practice by the judicial system in each state? The ability to control the population of those who violate the laws of the country is a valuable asset we as a society have evolved into making a permanent aspect of our judicial system. Capital Punishment is described as the legally authorized killing of someone as punishmen t for a crime (capital punishment). Despite Capital Punishment being in use for hundreds of years, there is still tension behindRead MoreFunk V. United States, Case Brief Essay627 Words   |  3 PagesCase Brief Funk vs. United States Supreme Court of the United States 290 U.S. 371, 54 S. Ct. 212 (1933) Facts: Funk was tried twice and convicted both times in Federal District Court for conspiracy to violate the prohibition law. In the first appeal to the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals the decision of the Federal District Court was reversed due to issues not applicable here. 46 F.2d 417. In both trials the defendant called upon his wife to testify on his behalf and she was excludedRead MoreRacial Differences Between Criminal Involvement And The Subculture Of Poverty1269 Words   |  6 Pagesdifferences are used to explain racial differences in criminal involvement in the United States. Social Class is defined as a division of a society based on social and economic status. Usually when a person thinks about crime in the United States, he also thinks about the race of the person and the crime. Thinking about crime anywhere in the world is to think about why certain groups of population have more criminal activity and involvement than other groups. People usually focus on race when they Read MoreFederal Bureau Of Investigation And Its Legal Implications854 Words   |  4 PagesFederal Bureau of Investigation takes all cases of alleged terrorist activity seriously, and they thoroughly investigate each case. According to Roth (2014), instead of seeking solely to identify individuals who are actively engaged in criminal conduct, now agents also have deliberately sought to identify individuals who might be willing to aid acts of terrorism, even if they are not currently involved in such activities (p. 981). The vagueness of the term willing and its legal implications canRead MoreThe Consensus, Crime Control, and Due Process Models Essay1630 Words   |  7 PagesThe criminal justice system consists of models and theories that often contradict one another. Of these models are the crime control model, the due process, model, the consensus model and the conflict model. In this paper these models are evaluated and defined, as well as each entity in the criminal justice s ystems role within each model. Policing, corrections and the court system all subscribe to each model in some way and in a hurried manner in cases that dictate such a response. As describedRead MoreAl Capone : The Ruthless Gangster1222 Words   |  5 PagesAl Capone is widely known as the most ruthless gangster in the United States due to his involvement in violence due to the illegalization of the distribution and consumption of alcohol, the Prohibition Act. Most of Capone’s profits came from his disobedience to the act which was successful due to the few tactics he utilized. Throughout the 1920s, Capone was known for being a successful criminal and almost made Prohibition nonexistent. Capone is credited for most of the illegal distribution of alcoholRead MoreThe Amendment And The Fourteenth Amendment Essay1458 Words   |  6 Pagesgrounds of excessive Governmental Involvement and abuse of Fourth Amendment s right of the people to be secure in their persons the Fifth Ame ndment. Ninth Amendment, and the Fourteenth Amendment. First Amendment Protects: The First Amendment protects Mr. Jackson form use of hypnosis to create a criminal act. Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47, 39 S.Ct. 247, 63 L.Ed.2d. (1919) Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444, 89 S.Ct. 1827, 23 L.Ed.2d. 430 (1969): West Virginia State Board of Education v. BarnetteRead MoreEssay on Organized Crime Wthin The Unit1461 Words   |  6 Pages Organized Crime Within the United States Organized crime is a widespread topic of concern among many Americans due to its popularity in the media and entertainment industry. The public is aware of its existence, yet is not fully aware of why and how this complex â€Å"underworld† exists. In order to fully understand this area of criminology, one must take into account the characteristics of organized crime, the variables that allow organized crime to thrive, its large-scale effects on society, andRead MoreCapital Punishment And The Death Penalty790 Words   |  4 Pagesthe charged crime get sentenced to the death penalty. The true criminal is often times never the one sitting on death row. A common argument that is â€Å"pro-death penalty† is murder and crime rates have gone down with the death penalty; this is a common misconception that many people believe in. An alternative for the death penalty is life in prison for these criminals. Capital punishment is wrong and an inhumane punishment for criminals who are still too human beings. Frequently the wrong personRead MoreLabeling Theory A True Theory948 Words   |  4 Pages Labeling theorists seek to understand what transpires after an individual is identified for committing a criminal act and society labels the offender. This approach differs from the view of choice, biological predisposition, psychological factors, social learning factors, and societal bond and control theories, which seek to explain the first offense and any subsequent criminal acts. Therefore, is labeling theory a true theory? Defend your answer and include specific elements of labeling theory

My ans to bullying Free Essays

Primary and secondary schools children have been or are being bullied in one way or the order, by the time they reach their teens, fewer than half will tell a parent and at the very most, only a third will tell a teacher. Some children may get over an episode of bullying quickly but for others, the damage can go on for years. Children who have been bullied may suffer personality changes, can do poorly at school, may get ill, depressed or sometimes, even kill themselves. We will write a custom essay sample on My ans to bullying or any similar topic only for you Order Now Bullying interferes with children’s learning, concentration, and desire to go to school.† Bullying can be defined as the ongoing abuse of another person through physical or mental torture. To make matters worse this torture is conducted in the presence of others. The humiliation felt by the victim is hard to understand if you have never been bullied. If it happens over a long period of time it can have devastating effects on a young person’s mental health. There are a whole lot of myths about bullying such as: â€Å"It’s a fact of life†¦ everyone is bullied at some stage† of which to me is false. Bullying, is â€Å"physical or psychological intimidation (that) occurs repeatedly over time to create an ongoing pattern of harassment and abuse,† appears to cut across all the demographics of school size, place, and wealth. Bullies exist in schools big and small, urban and rural, rich and poor. â€Å"Their targets tend to have lasting emotional scars and low self-esteem,† Education Daily reported in October 1998. â€Å"Ten percent of eighth-grade students stay home at least one day a month for fear of another student.† Not only does bullying harm both its intended victims and the perpetrators,† say Limber and Nation, â€Å"it also may affect the climate of schools and, indirectly, the ability of all students to learn to the best of their abilities. Bullying deprives children of their rightful entitlement to go to school in a safe, just, and caring environment. There are many definitions of bullying, but most consider it to be, deliberately hurtful including aggression repeated often over a period of time difficult for victims to defend themselves against.   Bullying can take many forms, but three main types are: physical – hitting, kicking, taking belongings, there are verbal bullying which includes name calling, insulting, making offensive remarks, and Indirect bullying which includes   spreading nasty stories about someone, exclusion from social groups, being made the subject of malicious rumours, sending malicious e mails or text messages on mobile phones. Name calling is the most common direct form. This may be because of individual characteristics, but pupils can be called nasty names because of their ethnic origin, nationality or colour; sexual orientation; or some form of disability. Extent of the Problem: Various reports and studies have established that approximately 15% of students are   either bullied regularly or are initiators of bullying behavior (Olweus, 1993). Direct bullying seems to increase through the elementary years, peak in the middle school/junior high school years, and decline during the high school years. However, while direct physical assault seems to decrease with age, verbal abuse appears to remain constant. School size, racial composition, and school setting (rural, suburban, or urban) do not seem to be distinguishing factors in predicting the occurrence of bullying. Finally, boys engage in bullying behavior and are victims of bullies more frequently than girls. There was bullying in all schools, although a comparison with earlier work indicates a reduction during the 1990s. Although bullying can occur during the journey to or from school, eg extortion or theft of possessions such as mobile phones, most typically it takes place in school. It is more likely where adult surveillance is intermittent. In primary schools, up to three-quarters of bullying takes place in the playground. In secondary schools, it is also most likely outdoors, but classrooms, corridors and toilets are common sites. Both boys and girls bully others. Usually, boys are bullied by boys, but girls are bullied by girls and boys. The most common perpetrators are individual boys or groups of several boys. Children who bully others can come from any kind of family, regardless of social class or cultural background. Usually one pupil starts bullying a victim. There are often other pupils present. These may: help the bully by joining in help the bully by watching, laughing and shouting encouragement remain resolutely uninvolved help the victim directly, tell the bullies to stop, or fetch an adult. Any child can be bullied, and although none of these characteristics can excuse it, certain factors can make bullying more likely: lacking close friends in school being shy an over-protective family environment being from a different racial or ethnic group to the majority being different in some obvious respect – such as stammering having Special Educational Needs or a disability behaving inappropriately, intruding or being a ‘nuisance’ possessing expensive accessories such as mobile phones or computer games . Some victims may behave passively or submissively, signaling to others that they would not retaliate if attacked or insulted. They may benefit from assertiveness training. Others may behave aggressively, sometimes provoking others to retaliate. Some pupils are both bullies and victims; approximately 20% of victims also act as bullies although tending not to direct their aggression towards their own aggressors. They may come from disturbed family backgrounds and are likely to need special help in changing their behavior. Verbal bullying is common amongst boys and girls. Boys experience more physical violence and threats than girls, although physical attacks on girls by other girls are becoming more frequent. Girls tend to use indirect methods which can be more difficult to detect. Being bullied tends to decrease with age probably because older pupils are developing coping skills. In addition, older pupils meet fewer people who are physically stronger than them. However, attitudes to victims tend to become less sympathetic over the age range 8 to 15 years, especially in older boys. Physical bullying declines with age, but indirect bullying increases. The risks of bullying to the victims Victims may be reluctant to attend school and are often absent. They may be more anxious and insecure than others, having fewer friends and often feeling unhappy and lonely. Victims can suffer from low self-esteem and negative self-image, looking upon themselves as failures – feeling stupid, ashamed and unattractive.   Victims may present a variety of symptoms to health professionals, including fits, faints, vomiting, limb pains, paralysis, hyperventilation, visual symptoms, headaches, stomach aches, bed wetting, sleeping difficulties and sadness. Being bullied may lead to depression or, in the most serious cases, attempted suicide. It may lead to anxiety, depression, loneliness and lack of trust in adult life. Pupils’ attitudes to bullying Pupils’ understanding varies with age. Infants may confuse bullying with fighting and nasty experiences generally; juniors develop a more mature understanding. But difficulties in identifying bullying in 4 to 7 year olds should not prevent schools taking action. About 75-80% of pupils in surveys say they would not join in, or would like to help a bullied child. Fewer say they would actually help. About one fifth of pupils are less sympathetic. Girls seem more supportive of victims than boys, but not necessarily more likely to intervene.   Families are told about bullying more often than teachers; older pupils are less likely to tell at all. A ‘culture of silence’ persists; many victims – a majority of secondary-aged pupils –have not told anyone in authority of the bullying. The 1997 survey found that 30% of victims had not told anyone. Often teachers and parents need to take steps to uncover bullying. Most victims who do tell teachers or parents describe the outcome as positive. Victims need help and support. However, a small minority of victims reported bullying getting worse, especially when teachers were told. It is important that claims of bullying are taken seriously; a half-hearted response might make the problem worse. Sexual bullying is impacted on both genders. Boys are also victims – of girls and other boys. A case of proven sexual assault is likely to lead to the exclusion of the perpetrator. In general, sexual bullying is characterized by: abusive name calling looks and comments about appearance, attractiveness, emerging puberty inappropriate and uninvited touching sexual innuendoes and propositions pornographic material, graffiti with sexual content in its most extreme form, sexual assault or rape.   Sexual bullying can also be related to sexual orientation. Pupils do not necessarily have to be lesbian, gay or bi-sexual to experience such bullying. Just being different can be enough. A survey of 300 secondary schools in England and Wales found 82% of teachers aware of verbal incidents, and 26% aware of physical incidents. Almost all schools had anti-bullying policies, but only 6% referred to this type. Factors hindering schools in challenging homophobic bullying include staff inexperience and parental disapproval. Eradicating Bullying In Schools: Bullying is a problem that occurs in the social environment as a whole. The bullies’ aggression occurs in social contexts in which teachers and parents are generally unaware of the extent of the problem and other children are either reluctant to get involved or imply do not know how to help. Given this situation, effective interventions must involve the entire school community rather than focus on the perpetrators and victims alone. Olweus (1993) emphasize the need to develop whole-school bullying policies, implement curricular measures, improve the school ground environment, and empower students through conflict resolution, peer counseling, and assertiveness training. Olweus (1993) details an approach that involves interventions at the school, class, and individual levels. Bullying should be discussed as part of the curriculum, but teachers also need general strategies to deal with the problem. Whilst they should try strategies such as those described below, schools may find that stronger measures are needed in the more serious and persistent cases.   Where other strategies do not resolve the problem, permanent exclusion may be justified in the most serious and persistent cases, particularly where violence is involved. The Department’s updated guidance for local education authority exclusion appeal panels makes clear that pupils responsible for violence or threatened violence should not normally be re-instated. One of the strategies is including it in the school’s anti-bullying policy – so pupils know discrimination is wrong and the school will act covering it in inset days on bullying in general guaranteeing confidentiality and appropriate advice to lesbian and gay pupils challenging homophobic language exploring issues of diversity and difference – discussing what schools and society can do to end discrimination exploring pupils’ understanding of their use of homophobic language – they may not understand the impact. Parents can also help to stop children from bullying others in schools. For instance parents should talk to your child, explaining that bullying is unacceptable and makes others unhappy discourage other members of your family from bullying behaviour or from using aggression or force to get what they want. show your child how to join in with other children without bullying make an appointment to see your child’s class teacher or form tutor; explain to the teacher the problems your child is experiencing; discuss with the teacher how you and the school can stop them bullying others regularly check with your child how things are going at school give your child lots of praise and encouragement when they are co-operative or kind to other people. Conclusion: Bullying is a serious problem that can dramatically affect the ability of students to progress academically and socially. A comprehensive intervention plan that involves all students, parents, and school staff is required to ensure that all students can learn in a safe and fear-free environment.   There are key points to consider when dealing with bullying as a teacher, Never ignore suspected bullying ,don’t make premature assumptions listen carefully to all accounts, several pupils saying the same does not necessarily mean they are telling the truth adopt a problem-solving approach which moves pupils on from justifying themselves follow-up repeatedly, checking bullying has not resumed. The curriculum can be used to raise awareness about bullying and the anti-bullying policy increase understanding for victims, and help build an anti-bullying to teach pupils how constructively to manage their relationships with others. Through the curriculum it is possible to explore such issues as: why do people bully each other? what are the effects of bullying on the bullied, on bullies, and on bystanders? what can we do to stop bullying? There are now many videos that illustrate bullying, for example Sticks and Stones (secondary) and The Trouble with Tom (primary). Pupils can explore different characters’ perspectives and suggest anti-bullying strategies. REFERENCES Nan Stein in Bully proof: (1996) A Teacher’s Guide on Teasing and Bullying published jointly by the Wellesley College Center for Research on Women and the National Education Association Professional Library. Olweus, D (1993). Bullying at School: What we know and what we can do. Cambridge, MA Blackwell.    How to cite My ans to bullying, Essay examples

Teenage alcoholism Essay Example For Students

Teenage alcoholism Essay If you have a coupon or promo code, please enter it above How Would You Like To Receive Our Paper? All paper deliveries via email come in two forms: once as plain text in the body of an email message and, again, as a file attachment compatible with most modern word processors. It is not necessary to be able to view the file version of our paper, however, as the plain text version works with ANY computer and ANY email program. Email is the fastest, easiest, and most popular delivery method! This method will get your paper to you by the next business day. Please remember that if youre ordering after 4:00 PM Eastern Time, it will first be shipped the following morning. Federal Express does not deliver on weekends; but The Paper Store will gladly email or fax any paper to you.. seven days a week. 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Price and Quantity Adjustments for Australian Tourism and Hospitality Products

Why Starting and Staying Organized Is Critical To Marketing Success

Why Starting and Staying Organized Is Critical To Marketing Success Every day, consider your marketing career mindset. You can plan all you want, but at some point, you need to get to work, create something your audience will love, and launch it. You’ll probably make mistakes and face roadblocks along the way. But whatever goal you have for your marketing strategy, getting and staying organized will help you on your path to success. Today, we’re talking to Kelly Napoli, who is the content marketing coordinator at Obermiller Nelson Engineering (ONE). Learn how to collaborate with subject matter experts (SMEs), importance of taking risks with your marketing, and why starting is more important than anything else. ONE is trying a bit of everything with its content marketing to see what works and what doesn’t Marketers should pick SMEs’ brains to figure out what clients find interesting It works better and smoother to have a conversation with SMEs vs. asking them to write marketing content Lessons Learned: Once you’ve got a plan, implement it or nothing gets done Personas: Have conversations about your target market Provide audience with content that’s beneficial for them; at the same time, you don’t necessarily want to give away your secret sauce Efficient collaboration with remote teams involves utilizing tools, including phones and video chats Email is not always the most efficient way to communicate advances you through the collaboration and communication process Organization is Key: Find what works for you; for ONE, it’s You pay for software, so use it; focus on what needs to get done If you have multiple projects and tasks, stay organized by using task templates and Excel spreadsheets Going from two to four new blog posts monthly to be consistent and productive; publish content to produce results and influence certain perceptions Get organized in chaos behind marketing management; turn to , learn from your mistakes, and find software to help you stay organized Links: Seth Godin Obermiller Nelson Engineering Start with Why by Simon Sinek Write and send a review to receive a care package If you liked today’s show, please subscribe on iTunes to The Actionable Content Marketing Podcast! The podcast is also available on SoundCloud, Stitcher, and Google Play. Quotes by Kelly Napoli: â€Å"Since we’re just starting out, we’re kind of trying a little bit of everything to see what works and what doesn’t.† â€Å"I’m not that subject-matter expert. Working with that content partner has been huge.† â€Å"You can spend hours and hours and hours putting together a plan, but somebody’s got to implement it, otherwise nothing gets done.†

AUTOETHNOGRAPHY AS A METHOD FOR REFLEXIVE RESEARCH Essay

AUTOETHNOGRAPHY AS A METHOD FOR REFLEXIVE RESEARCH - Essay Example lentlessly attempted to overcome the divide between academic knowledge (so called cultivated knowledge) and popular knowledge (so called uncultivated knowledge). In the poststructuralist paradigm, different streams have emerged such as rhetoric analysis, discursive analysis, ethnomethodology, content analysis and so on in order to comprehend the phenomena under consideration from unconventional planes and levels. Autoethnography too is a poststructuralist approach, which is used mainly for dealing with issues related to self and identity. It is a genre in the making in both academic as well as real life practices. Autoethnography is at present an established approach in a number social science fields such as anthropology, sociology and cultural studies (Anderson, 2006; Etherington, 2004; Roth, 2005). In essence, narrative analysis is what constitutes autoethnography as an independent social science approach. Moreover, autoethnography is broadly multidisciplinary as it synthesises many theoretical tolls from a number of paradigms. According to autoethnographic approach, one could cultivate knowledge or open up a new level of discourse or inve nt a new plane of theoretical activity through the medium of a personalised style of writing. Here, the personalised style of writing would essentially be linked to or based on established scientific theory. Being part of the postmodern tradition of knowledge-making, autoethnography rejects the prevalent scienticism in almost all the branches of human knowledge (Wall, 2006). On the other hand, theorists of various hues still see autoethnography as deprived of scientific rigour, methodological validity and epistemological legitimacy. Countering this, the proponents of autoethnography assert that critical practices which are established in social science for validating knowledge could also be replicated to autoethnography in order to check its legitimacy and accuracy. In reality, the difference of opinion on the matter of

Information Security Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Information Security Management - Research Paper Example With this concern, the research paper intends to investigate software tools, certifications, techniques and methods that are currently considered as best practices in the context of managing the business continuity constituents of corporate data. In the modern day context, organisations are required to adopt effective software tools and techniques along with methods for managing and storing enormous data effectively. Presently, one of the best practices for the continuity of a business is viewed to be the technique of BCM, which can be used by the organisation (Campbell, 2012; FFIEC, 2003). Based on the above discussion, the varied constituents of the appraisal have been discussed in the following: Presently, different technological devices are used with the aim of managing information or data within a particular organisation. It will be vital to mention in this similar context that large corporations with the use of different technologies are able to ensure that valuable data is stored and disseminated appropriately (Campbell, 2012; FFIEC, 2003). Notably, management of data comprises different activities that include documentation, handling, storage and planning along with analysis that help in preserving high quality and reliable data. Subsequently, organisations managing data with the incorporation of the above discussed activities will be facilitated with the opportunity of ensuring that operations can be conducted in accordance with organisational objectives (IJC, n.d.). In this rapidly changing business environment, organisations are often viewed to face the challenge of managing huge figure of data in an effectual manner. Ineffective management of data might lead to the loss of relevant information, which in turn can affect the overall performance of an organisation (Protiviti Inc, 2013; Sikich, 2003). In this context, organisations implementing the above discussed data management techniques and tools are recognised to make

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Pentium Memory Management Unit Computer Science Essay

Pentium Memory Management Unit Computer Science Essay The main aim of the research paper is to analyze Pentium Memory Management Unit. Here, certain key features associated with a memory management unit like segmentation, paging, their protection, cache associated with MMU in form of translation look aside buffer, how to optimize microprocessors performance after implementing those features etc. have been discussed. Some problems and their respective solutions related to Pentium memory management unit are also covered. Also, the current and future research work done in the field of memory management is covered too. The main challenge is to get accustomed with the Pentium memory management unit and analyze the crucial factors related. Introduction A hardware component liable in handling different accesses to memory requested by CPU is known as memory management unit (MMU), which is also termed as paged memory management unit (PMMU). The main functions of MMU can be categorized as follows:-[1] Translation of virtual addresses to physical addresses which is also known as virtual memory management (VMM). Memory protection Cache Control Bus Arbitration Bank switching The memory system for Pentium microprocessor is 4G bytes in size just as in 80386DX and 80486 microprocessors. Pentium uses a 64-bit data bus to address memory organized in eight banks that each contains 512M bytes of data. Most microprocessors including Pentium also supports virtual memory concept with the help of memory management unit. Virtual memory is used to manage the resource of physical memory. It gives an application the illusion of a very large amount of memory, typically much larger than what is actually available. It supports the execution of processes partially resident in memory. Only the most recently used portions of a processs address space actually occupy physical memory-the rest of the address space is stored on disk until needed. The Intel Pentium microprocessor supports both segmentation and segmentation with paging. Another important feature supported by Pentium processors is the memory protection. This mechanism helps in limiting access to certain segments or pages based on privilege levels and thus protect critical data if kept in a privilege level with highest priority from different attacks. Intels Pentium processor also supports cache, translation look aside buffers, (TLBs), and a store buffer for temporary on-chip (and external) storage of instructions and data. Another major issue resolved by MMU is the fragmentation of memory. Sometimes, the size of largest contiguous free memory is much smaller than the total available memory because of the fragmentation issue. With virtual memory, a contiguous range of virtual addresses can be mapped to several non-contiguous blocks of physical memory. [1] This research paper basically revolves around different functions associated with a memory management unit of Pentium processors. This includes features like virtual memory management, memory protection, and cache control and so on. Pentiums memory management unit has some problems associated with it and some benefits as well which will be covered in detail in the later part. The above mentioned features help in solving major performance issues and has given a boom to the microprocessor world. History In some early microprocessor designs, memory management was performed by a separate integrated circuit such as the VLSI VI475 or the Motorola 68851 used with the Motorola 68020 CPU in the Macintosh II or the Z8015 used with the Zilog Z80 family of processors. Later microprocessors such as the Motorola 68030 and the ZILOG Z280 placed the MMU together with the CPU on the same integrated circuit, as did the Intel 80286 and later x86 microprocessors. The first memory management unit came into existence with the release of 80286 microprocessor chip in 1982. For the first time, 80286 offered on-chip memory management which makes it suitable for multitasking operations. On many machines, cache access time limits the clock cycle rate and in turn it affects more than the average memory access time. Therefore, to achieve fast access times, fitting the cache on chip was very important and this on-chip memory management paved the way. The major functionalities associated with a memory management are segmentation and paging. Segmentation unit was found first and foremost on 8086 processor which had only one purpose of serving as a gateway for 1MB physical address space. To allow easy porting from old applications to the new environment, it was decided by Intel to keep the segmentation unit alive under protected-mode. Protected mode does not have fixed sized memory blocks in memory, but instead, the size and location of each segment is set in an associated data structure called a Segment Descriptor. All memory references are accessed relative to the base address of their corresponding segment so as to allow relocation of program modules fairly easy and also avoid operating system to perform code fix-ups when it loads applications into memory. [2] With paging enabled, the processor adds an extra level of indirection to the memory translation process. Instead of serving as a physical address, an application-generated address is used by the processor to index one of its look-up tables. The corresponding entry in the table contains the actual physical address which is sent to the processor address bus. Through the use of paging, operating systems can create distinct address spaces for each running application thus simplifying memory access and preventing potential conflicts. Virtual-memory allows applications to allocate more memory than is physically available. This is done by keeping memory pages partially in RAM and partially on disk. When a program tries to access an on-disk page, an  Exception  is generated and the operating system reloads the page to allow the faulting application resume its execution. [2] The Pentium 4 was Intels final endeavor in the realm of single-core CPUs. The Pentium 4 had an on-die cache memory of 8 to 16 KB. The Pentium 4 memory cache is a memory location on the CPU used to store instructions to be processed. The Pentium 4 on-die memory cache is an extremely fast memory location which stored and decoded instructions known as microcode that were about to be executed by the CPU. [3] By todays standards, the Pentium 4 cache size is very lacking in capacity. This lack of cache memory means the CPU must make more calls to RAM for operating instructions. These calls to RAM are performance reducing, as the latency involved in transferring data from RAM is much higher than from the on-die cache. Often overlooked, the cache size of any CPU is of vast importance to predicting the performance of a  computer  processor. While the Pentium 4s level one cache was very limited by todays standards, it was at the time of its release more than adequate for the majority of computer applications. [4] Likely Pentium Pros most noticeable addition was its on-package L2 cache, which ranged from 256 KB at introduction to 1 MB in 1997. Intel placed the L2 die(s) separately in the package which still allowed it to run at the same clock speed as the CPU core. Additionally, unlike most motherboard-based cache schemes that shared the main system bus with the CPU, the Pentium Pros cache had its own back-side bus. Because of this, the CPU could read main memory and cache concurrently, greatly reducing a traditional bottleneck. The cache was also non-blocking, meaning that the processor could issue more than one cache request at a time (up to 4), reducing cache-miss penalties. These properties combined to produce an L2 cache that was immensely faster than the motherboard-based caches of older processors. This cache alone gave the CPU an advantage in input/output performance over older x86 CPUs. In multiprocessor configurations, Pentium Pros integrated cache skyrocketed performance in comparis on to architectures which had each CPU sharing a central cache. [4]However, this far faster L2 cache did come with some complications. The processor and the cache were on separate dies in the same package and connected closely by a full-speed bus. The two or three dies had to be bonded together early in the production process, before testing was possible. This meant that a single, tiny flaw in either die made it necessary to discard the entire assembly. [5] Technical Aspects of Pentiums Memory Management Unit Virtual Memory Management in Pentium The memory management unit in Pentium is upward compatible with the 80386 and 80486 microprocessors. The linear address space for Pentium microprocessor is 4G bytes that means from 0 to (232 1). MMU translates the Virtual Address to Physical address in less than a single clock cycle for a HIT and also it minimizes the cache fetch time for a MISS. CPU generates logical address which are given to segmentation unit which produces linear address which are then given to paging unit and thus paging unit generates physical address in main memory. Hence, paging and segmentation units are sub forms of MMUs. Figure 3.1 Logical to Physical Address Translation in Pentium Pentium can run in both modes i.e. real or protected. Real mode does not allow multi-tasking as there is no protection for one process to interfere with another whereas in protected mode, each process runs in a separate code segment. Segments have different privilege levels preventing the lower privilege process (such as an application) to run a higher privilege one (e.g. Operating system). Pentium running in Protected mode supports both segmentation and segmentation with paging. Segmentation: Pentium This process helps in dividing programs into logical blocks and then placing them in different memory areas. This makes it possible to regulate access to critical sections of the application and help identify bugs during the development process. It includes several features like to define the exact location and size of each segment in memory and set a specific privilege level to a segment which protects its content from unauthorized access. [6] Segment registers are now called  segment selectors  because they do not map directly to a physical address but point to an entry of the descriptor table. Pentium CPU has six 16 bit segment registers called SELECTORS. The logical address consists of 16 bit of segment size and 32 bit offset. The below figure shows a multi-segment model which uses the full capabilities of the segmentation mechanism to provide hardware enforced protection of code, data structures, and programs and tasks. This is supported by IA-32 architecture. Here, each program is given its own table of segment descriptors and its own segments. Figure 3.1.1.1 Multi-Dimensional Model When the processor needs to translate a memory location SEGMENT: OFFSET to its corresponding physical address à Ã¢â‚¬  , it takes the following steps: [7] Step 1: Find the start of the descriptor table (GDTR register) The below figure shows CPU selectors provide index (pointer) to Segment Descriptors stored in RAM in the form of memory structures called Descriptor Tables. Then, that address is combined with the offset to locate a specific linear address. Figure 3.1.1.2 Selector to Descriptor and then to finally linear address in Pentium MMU Step 2: Find the Segment  entry of the table; this is the segment descriptor corresponding to the segment. There are two types of Descriptor tables: Global Descriptor Table and Local Descriptor table. Global Descriptor Table: It consists of segment definitions that apply to all programs like the code belonging to operating system segments created by OS before CPU switched to protected mode. Local Descriptor Table: These tables are unique to an application. This figure finds the entry of the segment table and then a segment descriptor is chosen corresponding to the segment. [7] Figure 3.1.1.3 Global and Local Descriptor Table Pentium has a 32 bit base address which allows segments to begin at any location in its 4G bytes of memory. The below figure shows the format of a descriptor of a Pentium processor: [7] Figure 3.1.1.4 Pentium Descriptor Format Step 3: Find the base physical address à Ã‹â€  of the segment Step 4: Compute à Ã¢â‚¬   = à Ã‹â€  + OFFSET [7] Paging Unit Paging is an address translation from linear to physical address. The linear address is divided into fixed length pages and similarly the physical address space is divided into same fixed length frames. Within their respective address spaces pages and frames are numbered sequentially. The pages that have no frames assigned to them are stored on the disk. When the CPU needs to run the code on any non-assigned page, it generates a page fault exception, upon which the operating system reassigns a currently non-used frame to that page and copies the code from that page on the disk to the newly assigned RAM frame. [9] Pentium MMU uses the two-level page table to translate a virtual address to a physical address. The page directory contains 1024 32-bit page directory entries (PDEs), each of which points to one of 1024 level-2 page tables. Each page table contains 1024 32-bit page table entries (PTEs), each of which points to a page in physical memory or on disk. The page directory base register (PDBR) points to the beginning of the page directory. Figure 3.1.2.1 Pentium multi-level page table [8] For 4KB pages, Pentium uses a two level paging scheme in which division of the 32 bit linear address as: Figure 3.1.2.2 Division of 32 bit linear address The below figure shows the complete address translation process in Pentium i.e. from CPUs virtual address to main memorys physical address. Figure 3.1.2.3 Summary of Pentium address translation [8] The size of a paging table is dynamic and can become large in a system that contains large memory. In Pentium, due to the 4M byte paging feature, there is just a single page directory and no page tables. Basically, this mechanism helps operating system to create VIRTUAL (faked) address space by swapping code between disk and RAM. This procedure is known as virtual memory support. [9] The paging mechanism in Pentium functions with 4K byte memory pages or with a new extension available to the Pentium with 4M byte memory pages. The 20-bit VPN is partitioned into two 10-bit chunks. VPN1 indexes a PDE in the page directory pointed at by the PDBR. The address in the PDE points to the base of some page table that is indexed by VPN2. The PPN in the PTE indexed by VPN2 is concatenated with the VPO to form the physical address. [8] Figure 3.1.2.4 Pentium Page table Translation [8] Segmentation with Paging: Pentium Pentium supports both pure segmentation and segmentation with paging. To select a segment, program loads a selector for that segment into one of six segment registers. For e.g. CS register is a selector for code segment and DS register is a selector for data segment. Selector can specify whether segment table is Local to the process or Global to the machine. Format of a selector used in Pentium is as follows: C:Bb4JPGfoo4-43.jpg Figure 3.1.3.1 Selector Format The steps required to achieve this methodology are as follows:- Step 1: Use the Selector to convert the 32 bit virtual offset address to a 32 bit linear address. Step 2: Convert the 32 bit linear address to a physical address using a two-stage page table. Figure 3.1.3.2 mapping of a linear address onto a physical address [9] The below figures shows the complete process of segmentation along with paging which is one of the important functionalities of Pentiums memory management unit. [9] Figure 3.1.3.3 Segmentation with paging Some modern processors allow usage of both, segmentation and paging alone or in a combination (Motorola 8030 and later, Intel 80386, 80486, and Pentium) the OS designers have a choice which is cgiven in the below table. [9] Segmentation Paging No No Small (embedded) systems, low overhead, high performance No Yes Linear address space BSD UNIX, Windows NT Yes No Better controlled protection and sharing. ST can be kept on chip predictable access times (Intel 8086) Yes Yes Controlled protection/sharing Better memory management. UNIX Sys. V, OS/2. Figure 3.1.3.4 Usage of segmentation and paging in different processors Intel 80386, 486 and Pentium support the following MM scheme which is used in IBM OS/2. The diagram is shown below: Figure 3.1.3.5 Intels Memory Management scheme implemented in IBM OS/2 3.1.4 Optimizing Address Translation in Pentium processors The main goal of memory management for address translation is to have all translations in less than a single clock cycle for a HIT and minimize cache fetch time for a MISS. On page fault, the page must be fetched from disk and it takes millions of clock cycles which are handled by OS code. To minimize page fault rate, two methods used are:- 1. Smart replacement algorithms: To reduce page fault rate, the most preferred replacement algorithm is least-recently used (LRU). In this, a reference bit is set to 1 in page table entry to each page and is periodically cleared to 0 by OS. A page with reference bit equal to 0 has not been used recently. [10] 2. Fast translation using Translation Look aside Buffer: Address translation would appear to require extra memory references i.e. one to access the Page table entry and then the other for actual memory access. But access to page tables has good locality and thus use a fast cache of PTEs within the CPU called a Translation Look-aside Buffer (TLB) where the typical rate in Pentium is 16-512 PTEs, 0.5-1 cycle for hit, 10-100 cycles for miss, 0.01%-1% miss rate. [11] Page size 4KB -64 KB Hit Time 50-100 CPU clock cycles Miss Penalty Access time Transfer time 106 107 clock cycles 0.8 x 106 -0.8 x 107 clock cycles 0.2 x 106 -0.2 x 107 clock cycles Miss rate 0.00001% 0.001% Virtual address space size GB -16 x 1018 byte Figure 3.1.4.1 TLB rates Using the below mentioned two methods, TLB misses are handled (hardware or software) The page is in memory, but its physical address is missing. A new TLB entry must be created. The page is not in memory and the control is transferred to the operating system to deal with a page fault where it is handled by causing exception (interrupt): using EPC and Cause register. There are two ways of handling them:- Instruction page fault: Store the state of the process Look up the page table to find the disk address of the referenced page Choose a physical page to replace Start a read from disk for the referenced page Execute another process until the read completes Restart the instruction which caused the fault [12] Data access page fault: Occurs in the middle of an instruction. MIPS instructions are restartable: prevent the instruction from completing and restart it from the beginning. More complex machines: interrupting instructions (saving the state of CPU) 3. The other method used to reduce the HIT time is to avoid address translation during indexing. The CPU uses virtual addresses that must be mapped to a physical address. A cache that indexes by virtual addresses is called a virtual cache, as opposed to a physical cache. A virtual cache reduces hit time since a translation from a virtual address to a physical address is not necessary on hits. Also, address translation can be done in parallel with cache access, so penalties for misses are reduced as well. Although some difficulties are associated with Virtual cache technique i.e. process switches require cache purging. In virtual caches, different processes share the same virtual addresses even though they map to different physical addresses. When a process is swapped out, the cache must be purged of all entries to make sure that the new process gets the correct data. [13] Different solutions to overcome this problem are:- PID tags: Increase the width of the cache address tags to include a process ID (instead of purging the cache.) The current process PID is specified by a register. If the PID does not match, it is not a hit even if the address matches. Anti-aliasing hardware: A hardware solution called anti-aliasing guarantees every cache block a unique physical address. Every virtual address maps to the same location in the cache. Page coloring: This software technique forces aliases to share some address bits. Therefore, the virtual address and physical address match over these bits. Using the page offset: An alternative to get the best of both virtual and physical caches. If we use the page offset to index the cache, then we can overlap the virtual address translation process with the time required to read the tags. Note that the page offset is unaffected by address translation. However, this restriction forces the cache size to be smaller than the page size. Pipelined cache access: Another method to improve cache is to divide cache access into stages. This will lead to the following result: Pentium: 1 clock cycle per hit Pentium II and III: 2 clock cycles per hit Pentium 4: 4 clock cycles per hit It helps in allowing faster clock, while still producing one cache hit per clock. But the problem is that it has higher branch penalty, higher load delay. [13] Trace caches: A trace cache is a specialized instruction cache containing instruction traces; that is, sequences of instructions that are likely to be executed. It is found on Pentium 4 (NetBurst microarchitecture). It is used instead of conventional instruction cache. Cache blocks contain micro-operations, rather than raw memory and contain branches and continue at branch target, thus incorporating branch prediction. Cache hit requires correct branch prediction. The major advantage is that it makes sure instructions are available to supply the pipeline, by avoiding cache misses that result from branches and the disadvantage is that the cache may hold the same instruction several times and it has more complex control. [13] System Memory Management Mode The system memory management mode (SMM) is on the same level as protected mode, real mode and virtual mode, but it is provided to function as a manager. The SMM is not intended to be used as an application or a system level feature. It is intended for high-level system functions such as power management and security, which most Pentiums use during operation, but that are controlled by the operating system. Access to the SMM is accomplished via a new external hardware interrupt applied to the SMI# pin on the Pentium. When the SMM interrupt is activated, the processor begins executing system-level software in an area of memory called the system management RAM, or SMMRAM, called the SMM state dump record. The SMI# interrupt disables all other interrupts that are normally handled by user applications and the operating system. A return from the SMM interrupt is accomplished with a new instruction called RSM. RSM returns from the memory management mode interrupt and returns to the interrupted program at the point of the interruption. SMM allows the Pentium to treat the memory system as a flat 4G byte system, instead of being able to address the first 1M of memory. SMM helps in executing the software initially stored at a memory location 38000H. SMM also stores the state of the Pentium in what is called a dump record. The dump record is stored at memory locations 3FFA8H through 3FFFFH. The dump record allows a Pentium based system to enter a sleep mode and reactivate at the point of program interruption. This requires that the SMMRAM be powered during the sleep period. The Halt auto restart and I/O trap restarts are used when the SMM mode is exited by the RSM instruction. These data allow the RSM instruction to return to the halt state or return to the interrupt I/O instruction. If neither a halt nor an I/O operation is in effect upon entering the SMM mode, the RSM instruction reloads the state of the machine from the state dump and returns to the point of interruption. [14] Memory protection in Pentium In protected mode, the Intel 64 and IA-32 architectures provide a protection mechanism that operates at both the segment level and the page level. This protection mechanism provides the ability to limit access to certain segments or pages based on privilege levels. The Pentium 4 also supports four protection levels, with level 0 being the most privileged and level 3 the least. Segment and page protection is incorporated in localizing and detecting design problems and bugs. It can also be implemented into end-products to offer added robustness to operating systems, utilities software, and applications software. This protection mechanism is used to verify certain protection checks before actual memory cycle gets started such as Limit checks, type checks, privilege level checks, restriction of addressable domains and so on. The figure shows how these levels of privilege are interpreted as rings of protection. Here, the center (reserved for the most privileged code, data, and stacks) is used for the segments containing the critical software, usually the kernel of an operating system. Outer rings are used for less critical software. At each instant, a running program is at a certain level, indicated by a 2-bit field in its PSW (Program Status Word). Each segment also belongs to a certain level. Figure 3.3.1 Protection on Pentium II Memory protection implemented by associating protection bit with each frame valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page table: Valid indicates that the associated page is in the process logical address space, and is thus a legal page. Invalid indicates that the page is not in the process logical address space. As long as a program restricts itself to using segments at its own level, everything works fine. Attempts to access data at a higher level are permitted. Attempts to access data at a lower level are illegal and cause traps. 3.4 Cache in Pentium Processors Cache control is one of the most common techniques for improving performance in computer systems (both hardware and software) is to utilize caching for frequently accessed information. This lowers the average cost of accessing the information, providing greater performance for the overall system. This applies in processor design, and in the Intel Pentium 4 Processor architecture, caching is a critical component of the systems performance. The Pentium 4 Processor Architecture includes multiple types and levels of caching: Level 3 Cache This type of caching is only available on some versions of the Pentium 4 Processor (notably the Pentium 4 Xeon processors). This provides a large on-processor tertiary memory storage area that the processor uses for keeping information nearby. Thus, the contents of the Level 3 cache are faster to access. Level 2 Cache this type of cache is available in all versions of the Pentium 4 Processor. It is normally smaller than the Level 3 cache and is used for caching both data and code that is being used by the processor. Level 1 Cache this type of cache is used only for caching data. It is smaller than the Level 2 Cache and generally is used for the most frequently accessed information for the processor. Trace Cache this type of cache is used only for caching decoded instructions. Specifically, the processor has already broken down the normal processor instructions into micro operations and it is these micro ops that are cached by the P4 in the Trace Cache. Translation Look aside Buffer (TLB) this type of cache is used for storing virtual-to-physical memory translation information. It is an associative cache and consists of an instruction TLB and data TLB. Store Buffer this type of cache is used for taking arbitrary write operations and caching them so they may be written back to memory without blocking the current processor operations. This decreases contention between the processor and other parts of the system that are accessing main memory. There are 24 entries in the Pentium 4. Write Combining Buffer this is similar to the Store Buffer, except that it is specifically optimized for burst write operations to a memory region. Thus, multiple write operations can be combined into a single write back operation. There are 6 entries in the Pentium 4. The disadvantage of caching is handling the situation when the original copy is modified, thus making the cached information incorrect (or stale). A significant amount of the work done within the processor is ensuring the consistency of the cache, both for physical memory as well as for the TLBs. In the Pentium 4, physical memory caching remains coherent because the processor uses the MESI protocol. MESI defines the state of each unique cached piece of memory, called a cache line. In the Pentium 4, a cache line is 64 bytes. Thus, with the MESI protocol, each cache line is in one of four states: Modified the cache line is owned by this processor and there are modifications to that cache line stored within the processor cache. No other part of the system may access the main memory for that cache line as this will obtain stale information. Exclusive the cache line is owned by this processor. No other part of the system may access the main memory for that cache line. Shared the cache line is owned by this processor. Other parts of the system may acquire shared access to the cache line and may read that particular cache line. None of the shared owners may modify the cache line. Invalid the cache line is in an indeterminate state for this processor. Other parts of the system may own this cache line, or it is possible that no other part of the system owns the cache line. This processor may not access the memory and it is not cached. [15] Current Problems and Solution associated with them When you run multiple programs (especially MS-DOS-based programs) on a Windows-based computer that has insufficient system memory (RAM) and contains an Intel Pentium Pro or Pentium II processor, information in memory may become unavailable or damaged, leading to unpredictable results. For example, copy and compare operations may not work consistently.   This behavior is an indirect result of certain performance optimizations in the Intel Pentium Pro and Pentium II processors. These optimizations affect how the Windows 95 Virtual Machine Manager (VMM) performs certain memory operations, such as determining which sections of memory are not in use and can be safely freed. As a result, the Virtual Machine Manager may free the wrong pages in memory, leading to the symptoms described earlier. This problem no longer occurs in Windows 98. To resolve this problem, install the current version of Windows. [16] There is a little problem with sharing in

Why Do Governments Find It So Hard To Control Public Expenditure? :: essays research papers fc

Why Do Governments Find It So Hard To Control Public Expenditure? Since the 1970's rising public expenditure has become a politically salient issue, with the focus being on the difficulties experienced in trying to control it. In order to answer a question concerning why governments find it hard to control public expenditure it is first necessary to look at the reasons for the growth in public spending. There are three approaches which attempt to give reasons for growing public expenditure which I intend to scrutinise, these are, the societal system approach, the political system approach and the governmental system approach. An evaluation of these approaches should in turn shed light as to why governments find rising public expenditure hard to control. Following this approach which gives a wide outlook on the problems facing governments in controlling public expenditure, I will look at the post 1979 conservative government as it in particular targeted controlling expenditure upon taking office. Under the societal system approach one reason why a growth in public spending can be seen to have occurred is due to Wagner's ‘law of increasing state activity.' Wagner's claim is that as per capita real income increases in particular nations, they will spend a higher proportion of national product through government. As Wagner's reasons for increased public expenditure tend to be centralised around industrialisation and its associated effects it is not surprising to find that he thought the density of urban living would increase social frictions to such an extent that the government would be called in to handle it. That is to say, urban living would result in the need for enhanced police protection and other forms of government regulation. Wagner also believed that with growing industry certain investments would require so much capital that the state would have to provide it. He thought there would also be public goods that may not be in the interests of an entrepreneur to provide. There are counter arguments to Wagner's suggestions, the first of these is that it could be argued that increased density would provide opportunities for economies of scale. Thus, the proximity of people to one another could result in networks of personal support, lessening the need for public services. Secondly, contrary to Wagner's arguments for public good provision by the state, it is possible to show other countries that either do without it, or provide for user charges. This shifts the burden from general revenues to those who benefit most directly. Another reason for rising government expenditure under the societal system approach is expressed via Tarschy's ‘demonstration effect.' He suggests that the coming of television "has led to increased awareness of the standard of